-- That this ought to be effected with the co-operation of the State and even under its direction is not less certain. For a corporation is not an individual like other individuals， and， in order that it may acquire or possess the privileges of an ordinary citizen， something supplementary must be added， some fiction， some expedient of the law. If the law is disposed to overlook the fact that a corporation is not a natural personage， if it gives to it a civil personality， if it declares it to be capable of inheriting， of acquiring and of selling， if it becomes a protected and respected proprietor， this is due to the favors of the State which places its tribunal and gendarmes at its service， and which， in exchange for this service， justly imposes conditions on it， and， among others， that of being useful and remaining useful， or at least that of never becoming harmful. Such was the rule under the Ancient Régime， and especially since the Government has for the last quarter of a century gradually and efficaciously worked out a reform. Not only， in 1749， had it prohibited the Church from accepting land， either by donation， by testament， or in exchange， without royal letters-patent registered in Parliament； not only in 1764 had it abolished the order of Jesuits， closed their colleges and sold their possessions， but also， since 1766， a permanent commission， formed by the King's order and instructed by him， had lopped off all the dying and dead branches of the ecclesiastical tree.[41] There was a revision of the primitive Constitutions； a prohibition to every institution to have more than two monasteries at Paris and more than one in other towns；a postponement of the age for taking vows -- that of sixteen being no longer permitted -- to twenty-one for men and eighteen for women； an obligatory minimum of monks and nuns for each establishment， which varies from fifteen to nine according to circumstances； if this is not kept up there follows a suppression or prohibition to receive novices： owing to these measures， rigorously executed， at the end of twelve years "the Grammontins， the Servites， the Celestins， the ancient order of Saint-Bénédict， that of the Holy Ghost of Montpellier， and those of Sainte-Brigitte， Sainte-Croix-de-la-Bretonnerie， Saint-Ruff， and Saint-Antoine，" - in short， nine complete congregations had disappeared. At the end of twenty years three hundred and eighty-six establishments had been suppressed， the number of monks and nuns had diminished one-third， the larger portion of possessions which had escheated were usefully applied， and the congregations of men lacked novices and complained that they could not fill up their ranks. If the monks were still found to be too numerous， too wealthy， and too indolent， it was merely necessary to keep on in this way； before the end of the century， merely by the application of the edict， the institution would be brought back， without brutality or injustice， within the scope of the development， the limitations of fortune， and the class of functions acceptable to a modern State.
But， because these ecclesiastical bodies stood in need of reform it does not follow that it was necessary to destroy them， nor， in general， that independent institutions are detrimental to a nation.
Organized purposely for a public service， and possessing， nearly or remotely under the supervision of the State， the faculty of self-administration， these bodies are valuable organs and not malign tumors.
In the first place， through their institution， a great public benefit is secured without any cost to the government - worship， scientific research， primary or higher education， help for the poor， care of the sick - all set apart and sheltered from the cuts which public financial difficulties might make necessary， and supported by the private generosity which， finding a ready receptacle at hand， gathers together， century after century， its thousands of scattered springs： as an example， note the wealth， stability， and usefulness of the English and German universities.
In the second place， their institution furnishes an obstacle to the omnipotence of the State； their walls provide a protection against the leveling standardization of absolute monarchy or of pure democracy. A man can here freely develop himself without donning the livery of either courtier or demagogue， he can acquire wealth， consideration and authority， without being indebted to the caprices of either royal or popular favor； he can stand firm against established or prevailing opinions sheltered by associates bound by their esprit de corps. Such， at the present day (1885)， is the situation of a professor at Oxford， G？ttingen， and Harvard Such， under the Ancient Régime， were a bishop， a member of the French Parliaments， and even a plain attorney. What can be worse than universal bureaucracy， producing a mechanical and servile uniformity！ Those who serve the public need not all be Government clerks； in countries where an aristocracy has perished， bodies of this kind are their last place of refuge.
In the third place， through such institutions， distinct original societies may come to be inside the great commonplace world. Here special personalities may find the only existence that suits them.
If devout or laborious， not only do these afford an outlet for the deeper needs of conscience， of the imagination， of activity， and of discipline， but also they serve as dikes which restrain and direct them in a channel which will lead to the creation of a masterpiece of infinite value. In this way thousands of men and women fulfill at small cost， voluntarily and gratis， and with great effect， the least attractive and more repulsive social needs， thus performing in human society the role which， inside the ant-hill， we see assigned to the sexless worker-ant.[42]